In the early 1960s, a number of filmmakers emerged in the United States and Europe to produce remarkable films that challenged any previous formal tendency in avant-garde filmmaking. The Structuralist filmmakers—including Peter Kubelka, Tony Conrad, Paul Sharits, and Kurt Kren––arranged their shots according to mathematical principles, attempting to produce non-narrative and non-illusionist films to oppose the cinematicapparatus. Similar to the advent of Minimalism in painting and sculpture, structural films insisted on shape, and their content was minimal and subsidiary to the outline.